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First published online 3 December 2003
doi: 10.1242/dev.00916


Development 131, 93-104 (2004)
Published by The Company of Biologists 2004


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Control of the proliferation versus meiotic development decision in the C. elegans germline through regulation of GLD-1 protein accumulation

Dave Hansen, Laura Wilson-Berry, Thanh Dang and Tim Schedl*

Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA



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Fig. 1. Polarity of the C. elegans germline and the genetic pathway involved in maintaining the stem cell population. (A) Diagram of germline organization of a young adult hermaphrodite gonad arm. Distal germ cells (proliferative zone; green), enter meiotic prophase as they move proximally (red). The somatic distal tip cell (DTC) caps the very distal end. (B) Genetic pathway that regulates the decision to enter meiosis [adapted from Kadyk and Kimble (Kadyk and Kimble, 1998Go)]. The GLP-1/Notch signaling pathway inhibits the activities of gld-1 and gld-2. (C) Distal end of a wild-type adult gonad arm showing GLD-1 spatial patterning (red; GLD-1-specific antibodies). The same arm stained with DAPI (blue), to reveal nuclear morphology. Arrowheads indicate approximately where transition zone nuclei are first seen. (D) Graph (roughly aligned with C) showing distal GLD-1 accumulation averaged from 11 gonad arms stained with GLD-1 specific antibodies (see Materials and methods). x-axis is the distance in cell diameters from the DTC. y-axis is the relative intensity of antibody staining in arbitrary units. (E) Genetic screen used to identify genes that function with gld-1 in regulating entry into meiosis. Animals homozygous for a gld-2(null), carrying a free duplication (gaDp1) that contains gld-2(+), were mutagenized to generate mutations in genes (m). Animals [m(–)] are recovered from siblings containing gaDp1 and are either homozygous or heterozygous for m(–).

 


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Fig. 6. NOS-3 is required for fbf-1 fbf-2 double mutant Glp phenotype. (A) fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) and fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) nos-3(oz231) animals one day past L4 were dissected and stained with REC-8 (proliferative) and HIM-3 (meiotic) antibodies (Hansen et al., 2004Go). The graph shows the average number of cell diameters along the length of the gonad arm that cells are proliferative (REC-8, green) or meiotic (HIM-3, red). The proliferative zones of 8/10 fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) nos-3(oz231) arms were smaller or of similar size to those of wild-type, while 2/10 were much larger (33 and 40 cell diameters). The phenotype is independent of germline sex as fog-3(q443); fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704); unc-32(e189) and fog-3(q443); fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) nos-3(oz231); unc-32(e189) animals were similar to the unfeminized animals (data not shown). Error bars = 1 s.d. (B) Dissected gonad arm of fog-3(q443); fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) nos-3(oz231); unc-32(e189) young adult animal stained with DAPI (blue), REC-8 (green) and GLD-1 (red). Distal is to the left. Scale bar: 20 µm. (C) Dissected gonad arms of wild-type (top) and gld-2(q497) fog-3(q443); fbf-1(ok91) fbf-2(q704) nos-3(oz231); unc-32(e189) (bottom) stained with DAPI (blue) and GLD-1 (red). Only a portion of the distal arms are shown with distal to the left.

 


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Fig. 2. Increased GLP-1/Notch signaling inhibits GLD-1 accumulation. Hermaphrodite gonad arms, with distal to the left, stained with (A-C) DAPI (blue), (D-F) REC-8 antibodies (proliferative cells; green) and (G-I) GLD-1 antibodies (red). (A,D,G) Wild-type young adult; (B,E,H) unc-32(e189) glp-1(oz112gf)/unc-36(e251) glp-1(q175); (C,F,I) dpy-19(e1259) unc-32(e189) glp-1(oz112gf)/dpy-19(e1259) unc-32(e189) glp-1(oz112gf); qDp3 [qDp3 contains unc-32(e189) and wild-type copies of dpy-19 and glp-1 (Austin and Kimble, 1987Go)]. Scale bar: 20 µm.

 


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Fig. 3. Loss of GLP-1/Notch signaling causes increased distal GLD-1 accumulation. (A-C) Distal end (left) of dissected hermaphrodite gonad arms stained with DAPI (blue), GLD-1 specific antibodies (red) and REC-8 antibodies (not shown). gld-2(q497) gld-1(q361); unc-32(e189) glp-1(q175) animals (C), which lack GLP-1/Notch signaling, have high distal GLD-1 accumulation levels. (D,E) gld-1 mRNA spatial accumulation is similar in gld-2(q497) gld-1(q361); unc-32(e189) (D) and gld-2(q497) gld-1(q361); unc-32(e189) glp-1(q175) (E). gld-1 sense probe shows little or no staining (not shown). Scale bar: 20 µm.

 


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Fig. 4. Excess GLD-1 causes premature meiotic entry. (A) gld-1(oz10gf) has a smaller proliferative zone than wild-type animals. Dissected gld-1(oz10gf) and wild-type gonad arms from animals grown at 20°C to one day past L4, stained with REC-8- and HIM-3-specific antibodies, and DAPI. Proliferative zone defined as the number of cell diameters from the DTC that are REC-8-positive with all cells at that distance also REC-8-positive. n=15 per genotype. t-test P<10–7. The oz10 allele contains a deletion in the gld-1 3'UTR, as well as a missense mutation in an amino acid conserved in some, but not all homologues (Jones and Schedl, 1995Go). The increased GLD-1 accumulation is probably due to the mutant 3'UTR causing increased translation (Crittenden et al., 2002Go). However, we cannot rule out the possibility that the missense mutation affects GLD-1 levels or GLD-1 activity. (B) gld-1(oz10gf) enhances the `Glp' phenotype of glp-1(bn18) at 20°C. The graph shows the percentage of animals that have lost their distal proliferative zones as measured by Nomarski microscopy. 40/40 unc-32(e189) glp-1(bn18) gonad arms had wild-type proliferative zones. For gld-1(oz10gf); unc-32(e189), 52/54 gonad arms had wild-type proliferative zones while 2/54 had smaller gonad arms with enlarged cells in the distal end. In gld-1(oz10gf); unc-32(e189) glp-1(bn18) animals, only 3/93 had large proliferative zones while the rest lacked a normal proliferative zone, with either sperm completely filling the distal end (85/93) or sperm with other larger cells (5/93). (C) Dissected gld-1(oz10gf); unc-32(e189) glp-1(bn18) adult hermaphrodite gonad arm stained with DAPI (blue) and SP56 monoclonal antibody (red), which is specific to male germ cells (Ward et al., 1986Go). Scale bar: 20 µm.

 


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Fig. 5. gld-2 and nos-3 function to promote GLD-1 protein accumulation. (A) Diagram of NOS-3 protein drawn to scale showing the location of the lesions associated with the nos-3 alleles obtained in the genetic screen described (Fig. 1). Shaded boxes represent the two putative zinc fingers that are similar to Drosophila Nanos. The oz233, oz235, oz239 and oz240 alleles are associated with nonsense mutations predicted to result in truncated proteins 308, 177, 355 and 568 amino acids in length respectively, as compared to 871 amino acids of full-length NOS-3 (Kraemer et al., 1999Go). The oz231 allele is associated with a 139 base pair deletion (open box), deleting amino acids 427-473, as well as changing the reading frame, therefore adding 39 amino acids (filled box) before encountering a stop codon. All lesion locations refer to the previously published splice form of nos-3 (Kraemer et al., 1999Go), however we have identified two alternative splices that affect exons five and seven. The alternative splice sites have also been identified in large scale cDNA sequencing efforts and are noted (http://www.wormbase.org, release WS100, May 2003), with nos-3b corresponding to the previously identified splice form (Kraemer et al., 1999Go). (B-F) GLD-1 protein accumulation (red) and DAPI (blue) in dissected gonad arms of (B) wild-type, (C) gld-2(q497), (D) nos-3(oz231), (E) gld-2(q497); nos-3(oz231) and (F) gld-2(q497); nos-3(oz231); unc-32(e189) glp-1(q175) animals one day past L4 at 20°C. The distal end is to the left and the proximal portion of each arm is not shown. Wild-type (B) and mutant animals (C-F) were dissected, fixed and stained together and pictures taken with the same settings and processed identically (see Materials and methods). Scale bar: 20 µm.

 


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Fig. 7. Models of factors regulating GLD-1 accumulation levels. (A) Schematic representation of GLD-1 accumulation in the distal germline with factors inhibiting accumulation (barred lines) and factors promoting accumulation (arrows). GLP-1/Notch signaling and FBF sequentially inhibit GLD-1 accumulation at the distal-most end of the germline, while GLD-2 and NOS-3 redundantly promote GLD-1 accumulation. (B,C) Alternative models describing the genetic relationships between glp-1 signaling and nos-3 and gld-2 relative to GLD-1 accumulation. (B) glp-1 signaling inhibits GLD-1 accumulation by inhibiting the redundant activities of nos-3 and gld-2. Alternatively (C), glp-1 signaling works in parallel with nos-3 and gld-2, and GLD-1 accumulation reflects the net influence of these factors. (D) Genetic pathway regulating GLD-1 accumulation. In the distal end fbf and gene x inhibit nos-3 and gld-2, respectively. More proximally, where glp-1 signaling is low, nos-3 and gld-2 promote GLD-1 accumulation. (E) Genetic model of genes functioning in the proliferation versus meiotic entry decision. glp-1 signaling inhibits the gld-1 and gld-2 pathways in the most distal end. For gld-1, this inhibition involves fbf-1/-2 inhibiting the promotion of gld-1 by nos-3. gld-2 is inhibited by something (x) other than, or in addition to, fbf-1/-2. As glp-1 signaling is reduced in more proximal cells, nos-3 and gld-2 promote GLD-1 protein accumulation, and both gld-1 and gld-2 promote meiotic development and/or inhibit proliferation (see text).

 





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