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First published online 11 October 2006
doi: 10.1242/dev.02647
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1 Organogenesis and Neurogenesis Group, Center for Developmental Biology, RIKEN,
Kobe 650-0047, Japan.
2 Laboratory for Animal Resources and Genetic Engineering, Center for
Developmental Biology, RIKEN, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.
3 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, M. D. Anderson Cancer
Center, University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
* Author for correspondence (e-mail: sasaicdb{at}mub.biglobe.ne.jp)
Accepted 8 September 2006
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SUMMARY |
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 TOP SUMMARY INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key words: Crossveinless 2 (Bmper), Mouse, Organogenesis, Gene targeting, Crim2
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). Bmp proteins
were first isolated on the basis of their bone-inducing activity in mammalian
tissues (therefore, named bone morphogenetic proteins) and play key regulatory
roles in skeletal development (reviewed by
Wan and Cao, 2005).
Interestingly, the Bmp family signals have been shown to play a variety of
roles in the control of embryogenesis, including in cell-type specification,
maturation, cell growth, apoptosis and dorsoventral axis determination
(Hogan, 1996;
De Robertis and Sasai, 1996;
Massague and Chen, 2000;
Hammerschmidt and Mullins,
2002).
A characteristic feature of Bmp signals is their function as a morphogen;
they generate an activity gradient and evoke multiple-threshold responses in
recipient cells (Gurdon and Bourillot,
2001). In Xenopus, for example, Bmp4 induces the graded
ventralization of mesodermal and ectodermal tissues in a dose-dependent manner
(Dale et al., 1992;
Jones et al., 1992;
Fainsod et al., 1994). In
Drosophila, a gradient of the Dpp (fly Bmp4) activity in the ectoderm
determines the dorsoventral specification
(Ferguson and Anderson, 1992a;
Wharton et al., 1993).
Therefore, the fine spatial control of Bmp signals is important for tissue
formation to occur in the right place.
Over the past decade, several classes of factors that negatively regulate
Bmp signals in the extracellular space have been identified. A typical example
is a class of secreted antagonist proteins that bind to and inactivate Bmp
proteins, such as noggin, chordin (Chd), follistatin, cerberus and gremlin
(Smith and Harland, 1992;
Lamb et al., 1993;
Sasai et al., 1994;
Sasai et al., 1995;
Hemmati-Brivanlou et al.,
1994; Glinka et al.,
1997; Hsu et al.,
1998).
Extracellular factors regulate Bmp signals not only negatively but also
positively. For example, detailed genetic analyses in the fly have shown that
Sog (fly Chd) functions both as an antagonist (anti-Bmp, hereafter) and as a
potentiator (pro-Bmp) of Bmp (Dpp) signals in a context-dependent manner. The
sog-/- mutant has a strong ventral defect (e.g. reduction
of the ventral neurogenic ectoderm) with expanded dorsal non-neural ectoderm
(Zusman et al., 1988;
Ferguson and Anderson, 1992b;
François et al., 1994).
In this dorsalization phenotype, Sog is shown to act antagonistically against
Dpp (Ferguson and Anderson,
1992b). Nevertheless, the sog mutant shows impaired
formation of the dorsalmost tissue (amnioserosa), which requires the highest
level of Bmp activity (Zusman et al.,
1988; Ashe and Levine,
1999; Decotto and Ferguson,
2001). In this particular context, Sog is thought to act as a
pro-Bmp factor.
Chd also seems to play some pro-Bmp roles in vertebrate development,
although the mechanistic details are poorly understood. In zebrafish, for
example, formation of the ventral tail fin, which is a derivative of the
ventral-most tissue, requires the highest level of Bmp signaling
(Wagner and Mullins, 2002;
Rentzsch et al., 2006). The
fish Chd mutant (chordino) has a reduced ventral tail fin
(Fisher et al., 1997;
Schulte-Merker et al., 1997;
Hammerschmidt and Mullins,
2002; Rentzsch et al.,
2006), suggesting that Chd is necessary to enhance the Bmp
signaling in the ventralmost tissue just as is indicated for fly Sog in the
amnioserosa.
Structurally, the Chd/Sog protein contains four cysteine-rich domains. At
least two of these domains interact physically with Bmp proteins and play an
essential role in inhibiting Bmp activity
(Larrain et al., 2000). We
have previously reported the isolation of a secreted protein, named kielin,
which contains 27 repeats of the Chd-type cysteine-rich domains
(Matsui et al., 2000). Kielin
is expressed specifically in the dorsal axis (the notochord and floor plate)
of the Xenopus embryo. Microinjection of kielin mRNA weakly
promotes paraxial mesoderm differentiation but does not induce strong
dorsalization (such as ectopic neural differentiation, which is typical for
the Chd-mediated Bmp inhibition in Xenopus)
(Sasai et al., 1995). This
raises the possibility that kielin does not simply block Bmp signals, even
though it contains numerous cysteine-rich domains.
A mouse database search has identified several kielin/Chd-related factors
(see Fig. S1 in the supplementary material). In mammals, Cv2 (Bmper - Mouse
Genome Informatics) and kielin-chordin-related protein (Kcp) are the most
closely related to kielin among these kielin/Chd-related proteins, and form a
subfamily with it (O'Connor et al.,
2006). Like kielin, Cv2 and Kcp contain multiple Chd-type
cysteine-rich (CR) domains (five and 18 repeats, respectively; see Fig. S1A in
the supplementary material). In addition, a von Willebrand factor type D-like
(vWD) domain and a trypsin inhibitor-like cysteinerich (TIL) domain are
located at the C terminus of each protein.
cv2 was first identified in the fly mutant study as a gene
required for the formation of cross-veins in the fly wing
(Garcia-Bellido and de Celis,
1992). Genetic studies in flies showed that the formation of these
veins requires high Bmp signaling activity (involving Dpp and Gbb), and that
Cv2 is essential for enhancing the local Bmp signal near the receiving cells
(O'Connor et al., 2006). This
pro-Bmp role of Cv2 was also demonstrated by the reduction of phosphorylated
Mad protein in the fly cv2 mutant
(Conley et al., 2000;
Ralston and Blair, 2005). In
addition, forced expression of cv2 can antagonize the effect of
sog overexpression in the wing crossvein formation
(Ralston and Blair, 2005).
By contrast, the in vivo role of the vertebrate counterpart of Cv2 remains
rather nebulous. Two opposing activities have been proposed for Cv2. One is to
attenuate Bmp signals. Microinjection of Cv2 mRNA into the
Xenopus embryo results in the formation of a secondary axis similar
to the Chd-induced one (Moser et al.,
2003; Coles et al.,
2004). In vitro, purified recombinant human CV2 (at excessive
doses) inhibits the Bmp-dependent osteoblast and chondrocyte differentiation
in cultured cells (Binnerts et al.,
2004). Moreover, the transfection of 293T cells with a
Cv2 plasmid reduces cellular response to Bmp4 protein in a
Bmp-responding luciferease reporter assay
(Moser et al., 2003). The
other theory is that Cv2 enhances Bmp signaling, as does its fly homologue. A
report (Kamimura et al., 2004)
has shown that transfection of a Cv2 plasmid enhances the cellular
response to Bmp4, as measured by Smad phosphorylation. We have also observed
that the addition of Cv2 protein (6 nM) enhances Bmp4 (25 nM)-induced
cartilage differentiation in cultured E14.5 mouse embryonic fibroblasts (M.I.
and Y.S., unpublished). In Xenopus, co-injection of Cv2 and
Bmp4 mRNA into animal pole blastomeres synergistically induces the
ectopic expression of Xbra (Coles
et al., 2004). Thus, these gain-of-function analyses have so far
failed to provide a consistent answer to the question `do vertebrate Cv2 acts
as an anti-Bmp or a pro-Bmp factor in embryogenesis?'. Although a recent
zebrafish Cv2 morphant study
(Rentzsch et al., 2006)
reported a pro-Bmp role in the dorsoventral axis patterning, the same study
also indicated that Cv2 protein may acts as an anti-Bmp factor depending on
its proteolytic processing, suggesting a possible bidirectional role for
vertebrate Cv2.
In the present study, to elucidate the exact role of Cv2 in vivo, we performed a loss-of-function study by generating the `null' Cv2 mutant. Based on loss-of-function evidence and genetic interaction data, we demonstrate that Cv2 plays essential roles as a local enhancer of Bmp signals in mouse organogenesis.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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).
To generate the targeted ES cells, TT2 ES cells
(Yagi et al., 1993a) were
transfected with the resultant targeting vector made with pMCDTA(A+T/pau)
(Yagi et al., 1993b) and
selected with G418. Recombinant ES cells were injected into an eight-cell
embryo (inside of the zona pelucida) of CD-1 mice. For the Cv2
mutant, we obtained a germline chimera from one recombinant line each for
tau-lacZ and for nlacZ. No differences in the null mutant
phenotypes were observed between the two mouse lines. The nLacZ line
gave better ß-galactosidase staining (probably because lacZ was
used instead of tau-lacZ), and was used for in vivo expression
analysis. For the Kcp mutant, we obtained germline chimeras from two
independent recombinants. To remove the pgk-neo cassette from the
Kcp mutant genome, pCAG-cre plasmid was injected into the fertilized
egg. The correct excision was confirmed by Southern blot analysis.
To detect the tau-lacZ knock-in allele of Cv2, PCR primers were designed for the sequence upstream and downstream of the start codon of Cv2 (Cv2-5' and Cv2-3', respectively), and for the sequence of tau (Cv2-T). The lengths of the amplified cDNA fragments are 564 bp for the wild type and 412 bp for the mutant. The primers are as follows: Cv2-5', 5'-AGTCGCCCGGGATTCCCTCCAGGT-3'; Cv2-3', 5'-AGATGCTGCCTAGCACCGTGGATTT-3'; Cv2-T, 5'-TGTCATCGGGTCCAGTCCCATCTTT-3'. To detect the nLacZ knock-in allele of Cv2, a primer for ß-galactosidase (mCv2-L, 5'-TAACCGTGCATCTGCCAGTTTGAGG-3') was used. The length of the mutant fragment is 375 bp. To detect the Kcp mutant allele, primers were designed for the sequence upstream and downstream of the start codon of Kcp (Kcp-5' and Kcp-3', respectively), and for the sequence of tau sequence (Kcp-T). The lengths of the amplified cDNA fragments are 553 bp for the wild type and 390 bp for the mutant. The primers are as follows: Kcp-5', 5'-GAGCTTGGAAGACTGCTATGGGTCA-3'; Kcp-3', 5'-AGCCTCTGCTTCACCGCTACTTAGG-3'; Kcp-T, 5'-GGTTTCAGAGCCTGGTTCCTCAGAT-3'. All the lines were backcrossed with C57BL/6 genetic background for two or three generations prior to analysis.
Bmp4 mutant mice (Lawson et
al., 1999) were crossed to the Cv2 mutant strain. To
detect the Bmp4 mutant allele, primers were designed for the sequence
upstream and downstream of the start codon of Bmp4 (Bmp4-5' and
Bmp4-3', respectively), and for the sequence of sequence of
ß-galactosidase sequence (Bmp4-L). The lengths of the amplified cDNA
fragments are 495 bp for the wild type and about 300 bp for the mutant. The
primers are as follows: Bmp4-5',
5'-GCAGCTGGTGTGTGTGTGTGTAGGG-3'; Bmp4-3',
5'-GTTCCCTGGCTCTGCTCTTCCTCCT-3'; Bmp4-L,
5'-TTCACCCACCGGTACCTTACGCTTC-3'.
Histology, and skeletal specimen preparation
For histological analyses, embryos were fixed in 7.6% formamide/distilled
water or Bouin's fixative overnight. They were then embedded in paraffin,
sectioned at 10 µm and stained with Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) as described
previously (Ikeya et al., 1998).
Skeletons were prepared as described previously
(Parr and McMahon, 1995).
Briefly, E14.5, E18.5 and P0 mice were eviscerated, skinned, fixed in 80%
alcohol and stained with Alcian Blue and Alizarin Red.
Immunohistochemistry, immunostaining, whole-mount in situ hybridization and statistics
For immunohistochemistry, samples were fixed in 4%
paraformaldehyde/phosphate-buffered saline for 30 minutes and processed as
described previously (Mizuseki et al.,
2003). Primary antibody dilutions were as follows: anti-human Ki67
at 1:200 (BD Pharmingen, mouse monoclonal), anti-Zic1 at 1:3000
(Su et al., 2006), anti-rat
aquaporin 5 (AQP5) at 1:5 (CHEMICON, rabbit polyclonal), anti-Cc10 (T18) at
1:10 (Santa Cruz, goat polyclonal), anti-Hnf3b at 1:100 (DSHB), anti-Isl1 at
1:200 (DSHB), anti-Mash1 at 1:10 (Pharmingen, mouse monoclonal), anti-Msx1/2
at 1:100 (DSHB, 4G1), anti-Pax2 at 1:200 (Babco, rabbit polyclonal), anti-Pax7
at 1:200 (DSHB), anti-Pecam (CD31) at 1:25 (BD Pharmingen, rat monoclonal),
anti-human prosurfactant protein C (proSP-C) at 1:200 (Chemicon, rabbit
polyclonal), and anti-smooth muscle actin (SMA) at 1:4000 (Sigma, mouse
monoclonal, clone 1A4).
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). In
situ hybridization was performed as described previously
(Mizuseki et al., 2003). For the statistical analysis of proliferating chondrocytes, we counted Ki67-positive cells among DAPI-positive cells in a 150 µm x 150 µm square area around the notochord in four to six randomly selected sections of each embryo (three samples for each genotype). The glomeruli in developing kidneys were counted in HE-stained sections that represented the maximum area along the longest axis, and the numbers from six to 16 sections for each genotype were scored.
RT-PCR analysis
RT-PCR was performed as described previously
(Mizuseki et al., 2003). The
primers used for RT-PCR were as follows:
aggrecan 1, 5'-CCAAGTTCCAGGGTCACTGT-3' and 5'-CCAAGTTCCAGGGTCACTGT-3';
Col2a1, 5'-GCCAAGACCTGAAACTCTGC-3' and 5'-CTTGCCCCACTTACCAGTGT-3';
Gapdh, 5'-GACCCCTCATTGACCTCAACTACA-3' and 5'-GGTCTTACTCCTTGGAGGCCATGT-3';
Cv2, 5'-ATTACCTGCTGCGTCTTGCT-3' and 5'-TTCTCTCACGCACTGTGTCC-3';
Pax1, 5'-CACATTCAGTCAGCAACATCCTG-3' and 5'-TGTATACTCCCTGCTGGTTGGAA-3'.
MEF preparation and induction assays
MEF cells from each embryo were prepared as described previously
(Hogan et al., 1994;
Lengner et al., 2004) with
some modification. Briefly, E14.5 embryos were dissected from heterozygous
mouse intercrosses. The trunk tissues of each eviscerated embryo were
separately sheared through an 18-G syringe once in 1 ml of 0.05% trypsin/1 mM
EDTA/0.001% DNase I and incubated at 37°C for 10 minutes. The cells were
plated on one 10 cm tissue culture dish per embryo and culture in DMEM/10%
FCS. MEF cells from Cv2+/- mice and those from
Cv2-/- mice contained similar percentages of
lacZ-positive cells (
25%). MEF cells (1x105,
passage two or three) were plated onto each well of a 24-well cell culture
plate (BD Falcon). The recombinant human BMP4 (R&D) was added to the
culture 24 hours after plating. RT-PCR was performed 72 hours after
plating.
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RESULTS |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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)
(Fig. 1A,B). Germ-line
transmission was obtained with one line of the revertant cells (line 32;
Fig. 1C-E), which was used for
further analysis. To rule out artifacts resulting from using a single line, we
also generated another Cv2 mutant ES cell line using a different
knockout vector with an nLacZ insert (see Fig. S2A in the
supplementary material). The mutant mice of this second line showed perinatal
and embryonic phenotypes (discussed below) that were indistinguishable from
those of the first mutant line.
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Temporal and spatial expression of Cv2 during embryogenesis
Previous studies have reported Cv2 expression in embryonic and
adult mouse tissues as well as in ES cells
(Coffinier et al., 2002;
Moser et al., 2003). By using
nLacZ-knocked-in Cv2+/- mice, we analyzed in
detail the Cv2 expression patterns during the organogenetic
stages.
At E10.5 (Fig. 2A,B), Cv2 was expressed in the dorsal midline of the CNS (arrowhead), migrating neural crest (nc), head mesenchyme, trigeminal ganglion (t), otic vesicle (o), para-aortic region and mesonephros (mn). At E11.5 (Fig. 2C,D), strong Cv2 expression was first detected in the presumptive vertebral body (arrowhead) and arch (arrow). At E14.5 and E18.5 (Fig. 2E-H; data not shown), Cv2 expression was detected in a number of developing skeletal structures and internal organs, including the vertebral body (vb) and arch (va), ribs (r), skull and long bones, limb girdle bones, pharyngeal and tracheal cartilages, dorsal root ganglion (drg), lung (l; particularly in the developing alveoli), kidney (condensed nephrogenic mesenchyme, or metanephric mesenchyme), and relatively small areas of the CNS. Expression of Cv2 in the developing nephrons of the kidney was also seen at P0 (Fig. 2I-K; discussed later).
Skeletal defects in Cv2-/- mice
The short-trunk phenotype (Fig.
1F,G) promoted us to analyze the skeletal formation in
Cv2-/- embryos, and multiple defects were observed in bone
and cartilage development at P0 (Fig.
3A'; also see Table S2 in the supplementary material). They
included in the formation of the vertebrae
(Fig. 3B'-F';
discussed below), ribs (lack of the 13th ribs,
Fig. 3G'),
pharyngeal/tracheal cartilages (small hyoid, thyroid and cricoid cartilages
and a lack of tracheal cartilages, Fig.
3A', J'), skull (a wider unossified area of the
metopic suture and small interparietal and supraoccipital bones,
Fig. 3K' and see Table S2
in the supplementary material; a cavity in the basisphenoid bone,
Fig. 3L'; loss of the
retrotympanic process of the squamosal bone,
Fig. 3M'), scapula (small
or with a hole in the middle, Fig.
3N') and humerus (lack of the deltoid tuberosity,
Fig. 3N') and the pubic
bone (smaller body of the pubis and unclosed symphysis,
Fig. 3O'). In particular,
gross defects were found in the vertebral column. When compared with those of
the control mice (Cv2+/+and Cv2+/-),
the vertebral bodies of Cv2-/- mice were smaller and
showed reduced bone formation throughout the rostrocaudal axis
(Fig. 3A', G'). In
addition, the vertebral arches (from the cervical to the sacral regions) were
largely missing (Fig.
3B'-F'). Similar vertebral phenotypes were also seen
in earlier embryos (E14.5; Fig.
3H'-I'). These vertebral arch defects were not
accompanied by the neural tube defect such as an unclosed spinal cord
(Fig. 1F,G; see Fig. S4 in the
supplementary material).
Histological analysis showed that the cell-dense region corresponding to
the dorsal vertebral arch was replaced with mesenchymal tissues in the null
mutant at E14.5 (Fig. 4A-D). By
contrast, no obvious histological difference in this region was found between
the control and mutant mice at E12.5 (data not shown). Consistent with this
finding, the expressions of Zic1 (an marker for dorsal
sclerotome-derived mesenchyme) (Aruga et
al., 1999) in the future vertebral arch region was unaffected in
the null mutant at E12.5 (Fig.
4I,J). These findings suggest that the loss of Cv2
prevents the further differentiation of the sclerotome-derived precursor cells
between E12.5 and E14.5 in this region.
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We next sought to elucidate the mechanism of the Cv2 action as a regulatory
signal of skeletal development, focusing on its relation to Bmp signaling.
RT-PCR analyses using embryonic trunk tissues (axial and body wall tissues,
excluding the internal organs) showed reduced levels of the early cartilage
precursor markers aggrecan 1 (Glumoff et
al., 1994) and collagen2 
1 (Col2a1)
(Cheah et al., 1991) in
Cv2-/- embryos at E14.5 (see Fig. S3 in the supplementary
material). By contrast, no significant differences in the transcription levels
of Bmp genes (Bmp2, Bmp4 and Bmp7) were observed between the
control and Cv2-/- embryos at E12.5 and E14.5
(Fig. 4M; see Fig. S3 in the
supplementary material), suggesting that the Cv2-/-
phenotypes could not be explained simply by a reduction in the general
expression levels of Bmp genes.
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;
Wan and Cao, 2005). For
example, the retrovirus-mediated misexpression of noggin in the axial skeleton
inhibits the cartilage formation in chick, whereas the expression of
Pax1 is not affected (Murtaugh et
al., 1999). Moreover, the Bmp7-null mutant, like the
Cv2-/- mutant, shows the defects of the vertebral arches
(Jena et al., 1997). In this
respect, the Cv2-/- phenotype of cartilage and bone
defects (Figs 3,
4) seems consistent with the
idea that Cv2 acts in the same direction as Bmp signals.
To obtain direct genetic evidence for either a pro- or anti-Bmp role, we
next examined the effect of Bmp attenuation on the Cv2-/-
mutant phenotype. In particular, we tested whether the vertebral defect, which
is a most evident skeletal phenotype, was enhanced or rescued by reducing
Bmp4 gene dose (Fig.
5). Unlike Cv2-/- mutants,
Cv2+/-;Bmp4+/- mice were externally
healthy and fertile, and, consistently, did not show a vertebral phenotype
[Fig. 5A,D; no dorsal vertebral
defects were observed, unlike those reported for
Bmp4lacZ/+ recently in a different genetic background
(Goldman et al., 2006)]. By
contrast, the deletion of one copy of Bmp4 strongly and cooperatively
enhanced the vertebral defect of Cv2-/- mutants (compare
Fig. 5C,F with 5B,E), causing
(1) reduction of the vertebral body in size and of its ossification (arrow)
and (2) suppression of vertebral arch development (arrowhead). These findings
demonstrate that Bmp4 has strong genetic enhancement with
Cv2, indicating that Cv2 and Bmp4 function
cooperatively, rather than antagonistically.
In the external phenotype, the reduction of the Bmp4 gene dose synergistically increased the frequency of the microphthalamic phenotype. A strong defect was found in 100% of Cv2-/-; Bmp4+/- eyes (n=6), while micropthalmia was seen only in 18% (n=22) and 1.7% (n=172) of Cv2+/-; Bmp4+/- and Cv2-/-; Bmp4+/+ eyes, respectively, suggesting that Cv2 and Bmp4 work together in the same direction with respect to eye development.
Taken together, these findings show that Cv2 plays a pro-Bmp role at least in vertebral and eye organogenesis.
Essential role of Cv2 in kidney development
To further elucidate the role of Cv2 in Bmp-related organogenesis,
we next examined the phenotype of Cv2-/- in kidney
development, where Bmp signals also play essential roles
(Godin et al., 1999;
Simic and Vukicevic, 2005).
During nephrogenesis, Bmp4 is expressed in the stromal mesenchyme,
S-shaped bodies and paraureteric mesenchyme, whereas Bmp7 is
expressed in the nephrogenic mesenchyme and ureteric bud/collecting duct
(Godin et al., 1998;
Miyazaki et al., 2000). Small
kidneys and decreased numbers of nephrons have been reported for the
Bmp4+/- and Bmp7-/- mutants
(Dudley et al., 1995;
Luo et al., 1995;
Miyazaki et al., 2000). In
Cv2-/- mice, the size of the kidney was significantly
reduced at birth (Fig. 6B). In
the section cut along the longest axis, the kidney of the null mutant was
27.0±12.4% smaller (n=6;
Fig. 6D) than that of the
wild-type mouse (n=6; Fig.
6C). The number of glomeruli was also reduced in the null mutant
(by 56.8±9.4%, n=6; also see
Fig. 7A, lanes 1, 2), whereas
no obvious morphological defect was found in the renal corpuscle
(Fig. 6F).
A similar hypomorphic phenotype was also observed for the Cv2-/- kidney at E14.5 (Fig. 6G,H) and E18.5 (not shown). During nephrogenesis, strong Cv2 expression was found in the condensed nephrogenic mesenchyme (Fig. 2H-K) and in the comma- and S-shaped bodies (derivatives of the nephrogenic mesenchyme; Fig. 2H,K). The nephrogenic mesenchyme is known to have a major contribution to the generation of the nephron. At E14.5, the number of Pax2-positive masses of condensed nephrogenic mesenchymes was significantly reduced in the Cv2-/- kidney (Fig. 6I-K). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the general histological arrangement of the Wt1+ nephrogenic mesenchyme (and S-shaped bodies) and E-cadherin+ collecting ducts was largely unaffected (Fig. 6L,M), although both the number of nephrons and the size of the kidney were reduced.
Taken together, these observations suggest that Cv2 has an essential function for the generation of the proper number of nephrons, presumably by acting on the nephrogenic mesenchymes, which themselves strongly expresses Cv2. As the relative reduction in nephron numbers is more evident at P0 than at E14.5 (Fig. 6K, Fig. 7A), the continuous expression of Cv2 (Fig. 2H-K) may be also necessary during a substantial period of kidney organogenesis after E14.5.
Enhancement of the kidney defect by combining Cv2-/- and Kcp-/-
The kidney defect phenotype of the Cv2 mutant appears consistent
with the idea that Cv2 plays a positive regulatory role in Bmp
signaling. However, previous gene targeting studies have demonstrated that the
blockade of Bmp signals (e.g., the lack of Bmp7) can cause an even
more drastic reduction in kidney development
(Dudley et al., 1995;
Luo et al., 1995). To test the
possibility that some other related molecules act in a partially redundant
manner, we next examined the compound phenotypes of Cv2 and
Kcp mutants. Like Cv2, Kcp is a Kielin-related molecule that contains
multiple Chd-type cysteine-rich repeats, a vWD domain and a TIL domain (see
Fig. S1 in the supplementary material), and physically binds to Bmp proteins
(Lin et al., 2005). During
embryogenesis, Kcp is expressed in the nephric duct and the
mesonephric tubule (E9-10) and in the presumptive metanephric tubules (E16)
(data not shown) (Lin et al.,
2005). Luciferase assays in 3T3 cells have suggested a pro-Bmp
activity for Kcp (Lin et al.,
2005).
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). Interestingly, a substantial enhancement in the kidney defect was seen when the Cv2 and Kcp mutants were crossed. On the Cv2+/+ or Cv2+/- background, the loss of both Kcp alleles exhibited no obvious effects on kidney formation (Fig. 7A, lane 3 and Fig. 7B). On the Cv2-/- background, however, the additional deletion of one or both alleles of Kcp caused a further reduction in kidney size (Fig. 7C,D,F,G) and the glomerulus number (Fig. 7A, lanes 4, 5). Furthermore, the kidney of the Cv2-/-;Kcp+/- or Cv2-/-;Kcp-/- mutant exhibited strong disorganization of the cortex-medullar arrangement with no clear border in between (Fig. 7F,G; a minor disorganization was also seen in the Cv2-/- mutant alone; Fig. 6D). These findings of genetic interactions indicate that both Cv2 and Kcp function in the same direction to promote kidney development, and that these Cv2-related proteins play a major regulatory role for the morphogenetic signals of kidney development.
By contrast, the skeletal phenotypes of the Cv2-/- mutant were not enhanced by the additional deletion of both Kcp alleles (data not shown). It is consistent with the fact that strong Kcp expression is not detected in the skeletal tissues (M.I. and Y.S., unpublished).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Mutant phenotypes indicate essential roles of Cv2 as a pro-Bmp factor in skeletal and eye organogenesis
A number of previous reports have shown that Bmp signals play positive
regulatory roles in cartilage and bone differentiation. The
Cv2-/- mice exhibit major trunk defects and minor head
deformities in their cartilages and bones
(Fig. 3; see Table S2 in the
supplementary material), which express Cv2
(Fig. 2 and data not shown). In
the trunk, severe defects are seen in both the axial structures (e.g. the
vertebral body and arch) and the non-axial structures (e.g. the 13th rib,
pharyngeal and tracheal cartilages, scapula, deltoid tuberosity of the humerus
and unclosed symphysis) (Fig.
3G',J',N',O'; see Table S2 in the
supplementary material). In addition, minor malformations are found in the
head, including the presence of a cavity in the basisphenoid bone, small
interparietal and supraoccipital bones, and an enlargement of the metopic
suture (Fig.
3K',L'; see Table S2 in the supplementary
material).
Importantly, many aspects of these Cv2-/- phenotypes
(including minor defects) coincide with those found in other mutant mice with
attenuated Bmp signaling. For example, like the Cv2-/-
mouse, the Bmp7 mutant has a small basisphenoid with a cavity
(Luo et al., 1995;
Jena et al., 1997) and a
partial loss of the vertebral arches (Jena
et al., 1997). The Bmpr2 mutant mouse (hypomorphic
allele) lacks the 13th ribs and has malformed interparietal bones
(Delot et al., 2003), as is
seen with the Cv2-/- mouse. The deltoid tuberosity is also
lost in Bmp7-/-;Bmpr1b-/- mutants
(Yi et al., 2000). The
enlarged metopic suture is found in Bmp1-/- mice
(Suzuki et al., 1996).
These phenotypes are thus consistent with a pro-Bmp role of Cv2 in skeletal
development. Moreover, our findings of genetic enhancement of Cv2 and
Bmp4 mutants strongly support this idea. To further exclude the
possibility of having any anti-Bmp function (particularly as a minor
contribution), it may be useful in future studies to examine the Cv2
mutant phenotypes in detail on backgrounds mutant for other Bmp pathway genes.
In this respect, one complex problem is how to explain the vertebral defect in
the null Chd mutant (Bachiller et
al., 2003), which is similar to the defective formation found in
Cv2-/- and Bmp7-/- mutants. In
addition, the null mutant of Tsg, which encodes a Chd co-factor, also
exhibits a similar vertebral defect
(Nosaka et al., 2003;
Petryk et al., 2004;
Zakin and De Robertis, 2004).
As Tsg has been shown to act as a pro-Bmp factor at least in some
developmental contexts (Zakin and De
Robertis, 2004; Zakin et al.,
2005), a possible pro-Bmp role of Chd in mouse vertebral
development may be an intriguing topic that should be tested genetically in
the future.
Essential roles of Cv2 in other aspects of Bmp-related organogenesis
Parallels between the Cv2 mutant and the Bmp-related mutants are
also found in the kidney phenotypes. Renal hypoplasia with decreased nephrons
is observed in Bmp4+/- and Bmp7-/-
mice, respectively (Dudley et al.,
1995; Luo et al.,
1995; Miyazaki et al.,
2000), as is seen in the Cv2 mutant (Figs
6,
7). The hypoplastic phenotype
of the kidney in the Cv2 mutant is further enhanced by combining it
with a mutation of Kcp (Fig.
7A), which encodes a secreted protein belonging to the Cv2/kielin
subfamily. As a recent report has indicated that Kcp acts as a pro-Bmp factor
at least in vitro (Lin et al.,
2005), these findings further support the idea that Cv2 acts as a
positive regulator of Bmp signals. However, the conclusion on the pro-Bmp role
of Cv2 in nephrogenesis should await further genetic crossing studies with
mutants of Bmp-related genes in the future, as we have so far failed to
observe a more drastic renal phenotype in
Cv2-/-;Bmp4+/- mice beyond the simple
additive effect (our preliminary observations).
Are there differential roles for Cv2 and Kcp in renal development? In fact,
the kidney develops normally in the Kcp-null mutant, even in the
Cv2+/- background (Fig.
7B,E; M.I. and Y.S., unpublished)
(Lin et al., 2005).
Interestingly, the recent report showed that Kcp-/- mice
are more susceptible to developing renal fibrosis and pathological tubular
lesions after injury (Lin et al.,
2005). This raises the interesting possibility that Cv2 plays a
predominant role in the organogenesis of the embryonic kidney while Kcp is an
essential regulator of renal tissue maintenance/regeneration after birth.
Detailed analyses will be required in future studies to elucidate the exact
relationship between these two Cv2/kielin-related factors.
In addition to renal hypoplasia, the Cv2-null mutant has the
impaired maturation and expansion of the alveoli (see Fig. S4 in the
supplementary material; rather than differentiation of each cellular
components), which are reminiscent of a phenotype in the transgenic mice with
a dominant-negative Bmpr1b overexpressed in the lung
(Weaver et al., 1999;
Weaver et al., 2003).
Therefore, a possible pro-Bmp role of Cv2 in lung development should be also
an intriguing topic for future investigation.
The function of Cv2 is not essential for all Bmp-dependent embryonic processes
This null mutant study has also indicated that Cv2 is not required for
several other aspects of Bmp-dependent developmental processes. For example,
the lack of Cv2 causes strong defects of cartilage and bone development, but
not in all skeletal parts. Even in vertebral development, which is clearly
defective, Cv2 is not needed for the early Bmp-dependent events of
cartilage formation, such as the induction of early precursor markers (e.g.
Pax1, Zic1, Sox9).
Moreover, Cv2 seems dispensable for developmental events during
the early gestation period such as gastrulation and early neural patterning.
At E12.5, the Cv2-/- mice exhibit no remarkable gross
defects and are found in a Mendelian ratio (see Table S1 in the supplementary
material; M.I. and Y.S., unpublished), even though Cv2 is expressed
in the rostral mesoderm and the caudal primitive streak during gastrulation
(Coffinier et al., 2002).
The dorsoventral patterning of the neural tube is another example that is
dependent on Bmp signals [emanating from the roof plate and overlying ectoderm
(Lee and Jessell, 1999)] and
is not affected in Cv2-/- mutants. The dorsoventral
markers of the neural tube (e.g. Msx1/2, Pax7, Isl1, Mash1 and Hnf3b) are
normally expressed in Cv2-/- mice at E10.5 (see Fig. S5 in
the supplementary material). In addition, the interdigital shaping of the hand
appears normal in Cv2-/- mice
(Fig. 1E and data not shown),
although this region expresses both Cv2 and Bmp2/4
(Kamimura et al., 2004). These
findings indicate that the requirement for Cv2 is stage- and
tissue-dependent in mouse embryogenesis.
Bmp signaling enhancement by Cv2 proteins
The mechanism by which Cv2 enhances Bmp signals remains to be clarified in
the future. Several possibilities can be considered for the mode of the Cv2
action at the molecular level. These include (1) enhancement of the binding
between Bmp proteins and their receptors by Cv2 proteins, (2) competition with
Bmp-binding inhibitors such as chordin and noggin for Bmp proteins, (3)
control of the matrix-association/sequestration of Bmp, and (4) protection of
the Bmp proteins from degradation (proteases).
In favor of the first model, a recent study suggested that the
Cv2/kielin-related protein Kcp enhances the binding of the Bmp protein and its
receptor by forming a tertiary complex
(Lin et al., 2005). However,
an extensive biochemical study using Biacore analysis did not seem to support
the mechanism of the enhanced receptor binding of Bmps by Cv2 proteins
(Rentzsch et al., 2006).
Instead, the study demonstrated that Cv2 and Chd proteins compete each other
for Bmp proteins as their binding partners. In fact, as epistatic analysis in
zebrafish dorsoventral patterning has indicated that the Cv2 morphant
phenotypes consist of both Chd-dependent and Chd-independent components, the
Bmp signaling enhancement by Cv2 may involve more than one mechanism.
Previous in vitro studies have demonstrated that vertebrate Cv2 proteins
bind to Bmp2, Bmp4, Bmp6 and Bmp7 with a high affinity, but not to Gdf5
(Moser et al., 2003;
Coles et al., 2004;
Rentzsch et al., 2006).
Although the present study implies strong functional interactions between Cv2
and Bmp4, the Cv2-binding specificity among the Bmp/Tgf ß superfamily
ligands should be an important topic to be analyzed in the in vivo
context.
Supplementary material
Supplementary material for this article is available at
http://dev.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/133/22/4463/DC1
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